Gameplay is the way players interact with a game: what they do, what they can choose, and how the game responds. Game theory is the study of strategy, the logical and mathematical decisions players make to try to win. Game designers use both ideas to make games that are fair, challenging and fun.

The elements of gameplay

Element	What it means
Rules	What players can and cannot do, and how to win or lose.
Characters	The people, creatures or objects the player controls or meets.
Sound	Music, sound effects and voices that give feedback and create mood.
Environment	The world, level or board where the game takes place.
Storyline	The story that gives the game meaning and purpose (some games have very little story).
Actions	What the player can do: move, jump, roll a die, build, trade and so on.
Skills	The abilities the game tests, such as speed, accuracy, memory, planning or teamwork.
Choice	Decisions the player makes that change what happens next.
Player modes	Single player (one person plays against the game) or multiplayer (two or more people play together or against each other, in the same room or online).

Example: Snakes and Ladders vs a platform game

Element	Snakes and Ladders	A 2D platform game
Rules	Roll a die, move that many squares, climb ladders, slide down snakes. First to the last square wins.	Reach the end of each level without losing all your lives.
Characters	Player counters	A hero, enemies
Environment	A 10 × 10 board	Levels with platforms, gaps and obstacles
Actions	Roll and move	Run, jump, collect items
Skills	Almost none (mainly luck)	Timing and hand-eye coordination
Choice	None	Which path to take, when to jump
Player modes	Multiplayer	Usually single player

Notice that Snakes and Ladders gives players no real choices, so there is no strategy. This is why it depends on luck. You can practise writing an algorithm for this game in Algorithms In Narrative Form.

What is game theory?

In game theory, a strategy is a plan of action that a player uses to try to win. Game theorists look at how players’ choices affect each other’s results. Games are often grouped by what happens to the total “winnings” of all players:

Zero-sum games (pure conflict)

In a zero-sum game, one player’s win is exactly the other player’s loss. The gains and losses add up to zero. This is pure conflict. Examples: chess, tic-tac-toe, or a one-on-one match where there can only be one winner.

Positive-sum games (mutual gain)

In a positive-sum game, players can all gain by cooperating or trading. Examples: cooperative games where players win or lose together as a team, or a trade in a board game that helps both players.

Negative-sum games (mutual harm)

In a negative-sum game, a change in the game makes all players worse off. Players try to reduce their losses. Example: in a strategy game, two players who keep attacking each other both lose resources, which can let a third player get ahead.

How designers use game theory

• Balance – no single strategy should always win, otherwise players stop making interesting choices.
• Reward cooperation – team games can be designed as positive-sum so players are encouraged to work together.
• Create tension – zero-sum competition makes exciting head-to-head matches.
• Test with players – playtesting shows whether players find a strategy that “breaks” the game.

Video

This TED-Ed lesson uses the Prisoner’s Dilemma to show how players’ choices can lead to mutual gain or mutual harm.

Exercise

1. Choose a video game you know. Describe each of the elements of gameplay in the first table for that game.
2. Classify each of these as zero-sum, positive-sum or negative-sum and explain why: (a) a game of draughts/checkers, (b) a cooperative puzzle game for two players, (c) two players in a racing game who crash into each other and both fall behind.
3. Suggest one change to Snakes and Ladders that would give players a real choice, and explain how this adds strategy.

Next: How to Pitch and Fund an Animation or Game Project: E-Portfolios, Proposals and Funding

Syllabus link: This post is relevant to the CAPE® Animation and Game Design Syllabus, Unit 1: Fundamentals of Animation and Game Design, Module 1: Understanding Animation and Game Design – Specific Objective 7 (“outline the elements of game play”); Specific Objective 8 (“explain game theory in animation and game design”).

Attributions to media used in this post:

Snakes and Ladders.jpg – Jain Miniature – Public domain (via Wikimedia Commons)

TicTacToe-123459678XOp.gif – Justineuro – CC BY-SA 4.0 (via Wikimedia Commons)

© 2026 Vedesh Kungebeharry. All rights reserved.